This section provides links or cites for scientific
papers and other resources on aging theories, underlying evolution theory, and
scientific observations that are germane to aging.
Aging Theories -
One-Page Summary 2015
Theories of
Biological Aging and Implications for Public Health - Presentation 2019
Programmed Aging and
the Emerging Reality of Anti-Aging Medicine - Presentation 2016
Introduction to Biological Aging Theory - E-Book 2020
Aging Theory Questions and Answers 2020
Programmed Aging Theories
Programmed theories of aging are otherwise known as
adap-ive or pro-active aging theories. See Aging Theories.
Emerging Programmed Aging Mechanisms and their
Medical Implications. T. C. Goldsmith Medical Hypotheses 86 (2016)
92-96 PubMed: 26547271 Article compares functional models of programmed
and non-programmed theories and describes the different consequences for
medical research.
Solving the Programmed/ Non-Programmed Aging Conundrum. T. C.
Goldsmith Current Aging Science 2015;8:34-40 Article suggesting there
is no current science basis for rejecting programmed aging on evolutionary
grounds.
Aging is a Specific Biological Function
Rather than the Result of a Disorder in Complex Living Systems: Biochemical
Evidence in Support of Weismann's Hypothesis, V. P. Skulachev. 1997. Biochemistry Moscow 62(11) 1191-5 PubMed: 9467841 -- Full text: http://www.thehormoneshop.com/telomeraserussian.htm
This
paper describes a programmed theory of aging based on evolvability and suggests
that gradual aging could have additional evolutionary benefit relative to
biological suicide.
Aging, evolvability, and the individual benefit
requirement T. Goldsmith. 2008. Journal of Theoretical Biology 252(4) 764-8. PubMed: 18396295 -- Full text:
http://www.azinet.com/aging/aging_evolvabilityJTB2.pdf This article
describes a programmed theory of aging and provides an evolutionary rationale
based on evolvability.
Mammal aging: Active and Passive Mechanisms and their
Medical Implications T. Goldsmith 2009. Bioscience Hypothesis. 2(2)
59-64 Full text:
http://www.azinet.com/aging/Aging_Active_v_Passive.pdf This paper
compares active (programmed) and passive (non-programmed) aging theories in
light of various experimental observations and concludes that active aging
provides a much better fit to empirical evidence. Active and passive theories
lead to very different approaches for medical intervention so this issue is
important to medical research on age-related diseases.
The Evolution of Aging
3nd edition. T. Goldsmith. 2015. 200 p E-Book (PDF) provides extensive descriptions of programmed and non-programmed aging
theories, underlying evolution controversies, historical perspective, and
applicable genetics and observational evidence.
Evolution of Aging Paperback version.
ISBN:
0978870956
180 p illus $5.49 2014
Empirical evidence for various evolutionary hypotheses
on species demonstrating increasing mortality with increasing chronological age
in the wild. G. Libertini. 2008. The Scientific World Journal 8:182-93, PubMed: 18301820. This article concludes that
empirical evidence favors programmed aging.
Senescence as an adaptation to limit the spread of
disease. J. Mitteldorf, J. Pepper. 2009. Journal of Theoretical Biology
260(2) 186-95 PubMed: 19481552 Full text:
http://mathforum.org/~josh/Epidemics-f.doc
Paper describing an
adaptive theory of aging based on group benefit.
Aging as an Evolved Characteristic –
Weismann’s Theory Reconsidered T. C. Goldsmith 2002.
Article discusses evolutionary disadvantages of immortality and suggests
that aging is a necessary adaptation. Full
text:
http://www.azinet.com/aging/aging-theory3.pdf
Shattered:
Medawar's Test Tubes and their Enduring Legacy of Chaos - J. Bowles, Quarterly Review of Biology 73:3-49. (2000) PubMed: 10790771
Presents extensive criticism of Medawar's 1952 paper which is the basis
for traditional theories of aging.
Evolution Controversies and the Theory of Aging. T.
Goldsmith 2009. Article describes social and perception factors that affect
scientific theories of evolution and dependent aging theories. Full text:
http://www.azinet.com/aging/evolution_controversy.pdf
Aging is not a
Process of Wear and Tear J. Mitteldorf. Arguments against the popular
generic damage theories.
The
Evolution of Ageing L. Milewski. Article favoring adaptive (programmed)
aging.
Rationale
for Complex Programmed Life Span Regulation in Mammals T. Goldsmith.
Discussion of different evolutionary value of life concepts and associated
theories of aging.
(Aging is not an adaptation or primary purpose of an organism design characteristic.)
An Unsolved
Problem of Biology Medawar, P.B.,
1952. H.K. Lewis & Co., London. Medawar’s
presentation developed the idea that individual members of a
non-aging population would have progressively less impact on evolution with
increasing calendar age and introduced the mutation accumulation theory of aging.
See summary and critique here.
Pleiotropy, natural selection and the evolution of
senescence, Williams, G. 1957.
Evolution 11, 398-411
http://www.telomere.org/Downloads/Williams_searchable.pdf
Williams’ antagonistic pleiotropy theory is one of the most respected
of the traditional theories. See
summary and
critique here.
The evolution of ageing and longevity. T.B.L.
Kirkwood & F.R.S. Holliday (1979). Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London B 205: 531-546. The
disposable soma theory. See summary and
critique here.
No Truth to the Fountain of Youth - Olshansky,
Hayflick, and Carnes, Scientific American June 2002 – This article
provides warnings against common ineffective anti-aging remedies.
Aging is an “inescapable biological reality”; caused by the
accumulation of random damage to the building blocks of life. This paper takes
the position that it is "impossible" for aging to be an adaptation or evolved
characteristic because of "the way evolution works." Most proponents of
non-programmed aging also base their position entirely on evolution
theory considerations and without consideration of empirical evidence. This
article is representative of wide consensus in 2002. However, currently
there is little specific scientific objection to particular programmed aging
theories or their evolutionary basis.
Regulation of lifespan by sensory perception in
Caenorhabditis elegans. J. Apfeld, C. Kenyon. 1999. Nature
16;402(6763):804-9. PubMed: 10617200 Research suggesting that life
span in the roundworm is regulated by environmental cues -- supports programmed
aging theories.
Hormonal Inhibition of Feeding and Death in Octopus:
Control by Optic Gland Secretion. J. Wodinsky. 1977 Science 198(4320)
948-951 PubMed: 17787564 Article describing a biological
suicide mechanism that involves hormonal signaling and links to the nervous
system. Female octopi die of starvation following breeding because they stop
eating.
Regulation of Drosophila life span by olfaction and
food-derived odors. S. Liebert, et al. 2007. Science 315(5815) 133-7
PubMed: 17272684 Paper describes a complex
evolved life span regulation system mediated by external signals.
Reversing the Negative Genomic Effects of Aging
with Short-Term Calorie Restriction - S. Spindler, University of California;
Scientific World October 12, 2001 -- see overview at
http://www.lef.org/featured-articles/spindler_press_release01.html
The retardation of aging in mice by dietary
restriction: longevity, cancer, immunity and lifetime energy intake.
Weindruch R, Walford RL, Fligiel S, Guthrie D., J Nutrition 1986; 116:
641-54. One of many reports
documenting slowing of aging by means of caloric restriction.
Daf-2, an insulin receptor-like gene that regulates
longevity and diapause in Caenorhabditis elegans. Kimura KK, Tissenbaum HA,
Liu Y, Ruvkun G. Science 1997; 277: 942. A report of the discovery of a gene controlling aging in the
roundworm.
The Serious Search for an Anti-Aging Pill - M.
A. Lane, et al Scientific American Aug 2002, -- Describes experiments
with D2G to simulate the effect of caloric restriction.
The search for anti-aging agents:
NIH Interventions Testing
Program.
Google Calico Aging Research
Company.
These
books are available from many publishers.
The Origin of Species - Charles Darwin, 1859
Free online:
http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/
Huxley J.S. 1942. Evolution: the modern synthesis. Allen & Unwin,
London. 2nd ed 1963; 3rd ed 1974.
Alternative Evolutionary Mechanics Theories
Evolvability
Wagner A. 2005. Robustness and evolvability in living systems.
(Princeton Studies in Complexity) Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0691122407.
Wagner, A., 2005. Robustness, evolvability and neutrality. FEBS Letters 579,
1772–1778.
Wagner G.P. and L. Altenberg 1996. Complex adaptations and the evolution of
evolvability. Evolution 50:967–976.
Kin Selection
Hamilton, W. D. (1963). "The evolution of
altruistic behavior". American Naturalist 97: 354–356.
doi:10.1086/497114.
Hamilton, W. D. (1964). "The
Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior". Journal of Theoretical Biology
7 (1): 1–52.
doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4.
Smith, J. M. (1964). "Group Selection and Kin
Selection". Nature 201 (4924): 1145–1147.
doi:10.1038/2011145a0.
Group Selection
Wynne-Edwards, V.C. (1962). Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social
Behaviour. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
Wynne-Edwards, V. C. (1986) Evolution Through Group Selection,
Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01541-1
Koeslag, J.H. (2003). Evolution of cooperation: cooperation defeats defection
in the cornfield model. J. theor. Biol. 224, 399-410
Wade, M. J. 1977. An experimental study of group selection. Evolution
31:134–153
Gene-Centered Theories
Dawkins, R. (1976) The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
ISBN 0-19-286092-5
Dawkins, R. (1982) The Extended Phenotype. Oxford University Press,
Oxford. ISBN 0-19-288051-9
Pittendrigh, C. (1958) Adaptation, natural selection, and behavior. In A. Roe
and G. G. Simpson, eds., Behavior and Evolution, New Haven: Yale
University Press, pp 390–416.
Progeria Research Foundation
http://www.progeriaresearch.org/
Werner's Syndrome Overview
http://depts.washington.edu/statgen/Computing/wsbackgrnd.html
Information on Long-lived Animals with Negligible
Senescence http://www.agelessanimals.org
Longevity Records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds,
Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish, Max Plank
Institute, ISBN 87-7838-539-3 -- The oldest lake sturgeon caught so far was 152
years old.
http://www.demogr.mpg.de/?http://www.demogr.mpg.de/longevityrecords/
Confirmation on longevity in Sebastes
diploproa (Pisces: Scorpaenidae) from 210Pb/226Ra measurements in otoliths.
Bennett, J.T. et al. 1982. Maritime
Biology. 71, 209-215. Describes
measurements of age in caught specimens of
Rockfish.
Genes
VIII Benjamin Lewin, 2004 Oxford University Press ISBN: 019879276X 990pp.
A very comprehensive college level textbook on genetics that has an
associated subscription to online updates. Newer versions may be available.
Human Genome Project.
The HGP is an approximately $3 billion government effort to fully
sequence the human genetic code and identify all of the genes in human DNA.
The effort which began in 1990 was substantially completed in 2003.
The second link is for online copies of the actual preliminary project
reports dated 2001.
http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/
